Empire to Europe: Britain 1914-1990
The second half of the twentieth century has been a time characterized by monumental change in Great Britain. There were many factors that have led to this change, however; the impact of the mass immigration from the New Commonwealth has had one of the largest effects on the current state of British society. This essay will first explain what the New Commonwealth is, and the extent to which these people flowed into Great Britain, in search for a better life for themselves and their children. It will also elaborate upon the push and pull factors, which have motivated so many people to immigrate to Great Britain throughout the second half of the twentieth century.
The New Commonwealth is a very general term. It applies to many of the current countries that were once colonized by Great Britain. These countries span the entire globe, reaching almost every continent, as well as an abundant smattering of islands off the coasts of North America, and Asia. Some of these New Commonwealth states include countries such as India, Jamaica, Pakistan, Bangladesh, as well as many of the West Indian Islands1. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century the New Commonwealth islands have generally had high population densities, high unemployment, low gross domestic product per capita, and low rates of economic growth2. These factors, as the essay will later explain, have driven many migrants to the UK. There is also what is referred to as the 'Old Commonwealth’; the old commonwealth is composed of 'The White Dominions'. These former colonies include Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa1. There has long been a synchronistic relationship between Great Britain and the New Commonwealth colonies; however, throughout the 20th century, these countries have gained high levels of independence from Great Britain. Throughout this timeframe, these colonies have steadily been regaining their independence. (Belize was most recently granted its independence in 19813).
Throughout the second half of the twentieth century there was a large influx in immigration from the New Commonwealth. Some of the first migrants came from Jamaica in 1948 on the on the SS Empire Windrush which shipped 492 Jamaicans to the UK in search of a better life4. Throughout the 1950s, emigration into the UK was at its highest with an estimated half a million blacks and Asians rushing into the UK through the 1950s4. If one was to look into the more specific values, by 1958, the major contributors to this population increase were the 125,000 West Indians and 55,000 south Asians who had rushed into the country4. Although these numbers are fairly impressive, the net increase in population from 1951-1961 was approximated at 12,0004. This shows that there was a fairly respectable bloom in the number of incoming immigrants; however this seeming large number was met with a much larger number leaving the country. Between 1961 and 1981 there was a net decrease of about 600,000 individuals (this efflux is commonly referred to as the Divine Paradox)5. Although these negative numbers are daunting, immigrants continued to flow into the country in search of work and a better life.
There were many factors, which pulled so many people in search of a better life in the UK. The successes achieved on the home front as well as the battlefields of Europe in both world wars for Great Britain resulted in a general sense of British-ness (or a general loyalty and nationalistic feeling directed towards these migrants’ newly victorious “mother-country”) throughout the UK and colonies who assisted in both military victories6. The contributions that were made, which led to subsequent military successes enjoyed by the British army and navy, were partially fueled by the assistance of the New Commonwealth. India, Honduras, and the West Indian islands were the major contributors of troops and laborers on the home front throughout World War II with approximately 13,000 troops (India contributing the greatest with approximately 10,000 of those troops) being supplied to the British Military7, which led to the eventual victory Second World War. There were many other factors, which played roles in pulling immigrants to the UK in search for jobs and better lives for their families.
This sense of nationalism, as well as the opportunity to work to make a sum of money to help their family and friends back home, with the possibility of returning home afterwards, along with the potential to bring their families and friends overseas to start a new life, pulled many families to immigrate to their new home in the UK. In many circumstances chain migration would occur. This phenomenon occurred when immigrants from the New Commonwealth would first come to Great Britain, and would be followed by their families and friends a few weeks, months, or years later, once a message of positive conditions and a steady income was shuttled back home. Throughout the twentieth century this chain-like process was one of the most effective mechanisms, which drew many immigrants into the country8. Due to this immigration pattern many migrants were reassured of their potential for a better life, and the numbers of immigrants searching for work in the UK continued to rise.
The jobs that these thousands of newly recruited immigrants took on varied greatly. However, their economic motivation was clear as in 1946 the Cabinet Working Party estimated the shortage of labor as being between one million and one and a half million positions9. The general demand for labor, fair wages, net decrease in population from 1960-1980, and the under employment due to expanding industry within the UK pulled many migrants from their homelands in search for work in the UK. The occupations which immigrants took on throughout, and after, the war included work in ammunitions factories, food preparation, agricultural work, jobs in the medical field as nurses and doctors, and other industrial, mass production jobs that, for a large part, took place in factory settings which the general British population was not enthusiastic to fill due to poor working conditions10.
This general acceptance of these new immigrants was shown through the passing of legislation by the British government, which motivated so many people to immigrate to the UK. For the most part, the assistance of immigrants, if they were of “good human stocks” and were able to assimilate “with the host population and become part of it”, was very appreciated11. The British Nationality Act was passed in 1948. This act allowed any individual, who was currently living in a British colony, and could provide documentation and a passport, to enter the country. Furthermore, in 1965, 1968, and 1976 there were three different Race Relations Acts, which made discrimination in housing and employment illegal. The 1976 act summed up all of the other acts by establishing a Commission for Racial Equality, which assisted in enforcing this legislation12. This legislation persuaded many people who were currently living in the New Commonwealth colonies to enter the country and to act upon this newly founded sense of British-ness by immigrating to the UK in search of better work, higher quality housing, and a better life for themselves and for their children than was available in their current states.
The driving forces behind why so many people chose to come to Great Britain were not only due to these pulling factors. This mass migration was also due to push factors, which can be separated into sets of economic, social, religious, and political factors which drove many of these “to be immigrants” out of their native countries.
There were economic factors that pushed many immigrants in search for a better life in Great Britain. Many of these economic factors affected the smaller islands of the New Commonwealth. These economic circumstances, which faced these to-be-migrants, included the low gross domestic product per capita, inadequate wages, low rates of economic growth, and high unemployment, which reached a maximum of 27% in Jamaica13. These poor economic conditions drove many immigrants out of the country in search for higher wages in the UK. In many instances, these immigrants would work for an extended period of time in the UK, and eventually return to their home country. However, these migrants were also known to send a portion of this newly earned income back home to support their families and friends. This new- found income was also used to assist their families in joining them (which also led to chain migration)14.
There were also political factors, which were the result of independence movements in places such as India, which played a role in the migration of many immigrants to the UK. Since World War II many New Commonwealth countries have been granted their independence. One of the most punctual independence movements sprouted out of India, which was granted its independence in 194715. When this occurred there was much turmoil, inter-arguing, and disorganized chaos within the newly founded government, which in turn drove many to the prospect of a better, more peaceful life in the “mother-country” of Great Britain.
One example of this turmoil and disorganized chaos, which occurred as a result of this newly founded independence, was manifested in India. The day after they had been granted their independence, the Muslim league had argued for a separate state for Muslims, and Pakistan was created. Pakistan had a strong Hindu and Sikh minority and then newly-independent India had a large Muslim population. This resulted in many Hindus and Sikhs migrating to India, and many Muslims migrating to Pakistan. As the paths of these two religious groups passed by one another there were massive riots that resulted in a huge loss of life, and destruction on both sides16. Consequently, during this period of disruption within India and Pakistan, as well as the bordering Asian countries, there was a post-war labor shortage in the UK, which led many now homeless and jobless-Asians who were adversely affected as a result of this religious turmoil to migrate to Great Britain.
There were also social factors that played roles in the pushing of many to-be-migrants from their home countries in search for a better life in the UK. In Barbados the population rates rose to 1,200 individuals per square mile. This relative overpopulation in Barbados as well as some of the smaller West Indian islands drove many migrants away from their homelands in search of a better life for themselves and their families.
Although immigration was at the highest in the 1950s, and part of the 1960s, there was a dramatic decrease in the overall immigration into the UK throughout the rest of the second half of the twentieth century. Between the years of 1960 and 1990 there was a slew of laws passed, restricting entry into the country of Britain. The first act aimed to restrict immigration was the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1962, which limited the number of vouchers that were allocated to New Commonwealth migrants, and was followed by many more. Throughout the second half of the 20th century there were many instances of race riots, (mostly perpetuated by white racists) which took place in Nottingham, Liverpool, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Brixton18. The difficulty that some immigrants have faced when finding jobs and accommodation truly manifested the racist tensions in British Society, which turned many away from the prospect of starting a new life in the UK throughout the second half of the twentieth century.
Immigration dramatically slowed throughout the 1970s and 80s, not only due to this legislation and racial tension. This decrease was also due to increases in employment, deindustrialization, the decline of the manufacturing industry, and the privatization of many industries throughout the Thatcher years19, which increased unemployment but did not necessarily open new opportunities for migrants as the 20th century drew to a close.
The economic, social, and political push and pull factors, which brought hundreds of thousands of New Commonwealth immigrants to Great Britain in search for better life, were great. However, the ultimate search for a better life for themselves, but also for many generations to come even as challenges persisted, has dramatically changed the face, and will continue to change Great Britain for many years to come.
The New Commonwealth is a very general term. It applies to many of the current countries that were once colonized by Great Britain. These countries span the entire globe, reaching almost every continent, as well as an abundant smattering of islands off the coasts of North America, and Asia. Some of these New Commonwealth states include countries such as India, Jamaica, Pakistan, Bangladesh, as well as many of the West Indian Islands1. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century the New Commonwealth islands have generally had high population densities, high unemployment, low gross domestic product per capita, and low rates of economic growth2. These factors, as the essay will later explain, have driven many migrants to the UK. There is also what is referred to as the 'Old Commonwealth’; the old commonwealth is composed of 'The White Dominions'. These former colonies include Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa1. There has long been a synchronistic relationship between Great Britain and the New Commonwealth colonies; however, throughout the 20th century, these countries have gained high levels of independence from Great Britain. Throughout this timeframe, these colonies have steadily been regaining their independence. (Belize was most recently granted its independence in 19813).
Throughout the second half of the twentieth century there was a large influx in immigration from the New Commonwealth. Some of the first migrants came from Jamaica in 1948 on the on the SS Empire Windrush which shipped 492 Jamaicans to the UK in search of a better life4. Throughout the 1950s, emigration into the UK was at its highest with an estimated half a million blacks and Asians rushing into the UK through the 1950s4. If one was to look into the more specific values, by 1958, the major contributors to this population increase were the 125,000 West Indians and 55,000 south Asians who had rushed into the country4. Although these numbers are fairly impressive, the net increase in population from 1951-1961 was approximated at 12,0004. This shows that there was a fairly respectable bloom in the number of incoming immigrants; however this seeming large number was met with a much larger number leaving the country. Between 1961 and 1981 there was a net decrease of about 600,000 individuals (this efflux is commonly referred to as the Divine Paradox)5. Although these negative numbers are daunting, immigrants continued to flow into the country in search of work and a better life.
There were many factors, which pulled so many people in search of a better life in the UK. The successes achieved on the home front as well as the battlefields of Europe in both world wars for Great Britain resulted in a general sense of British-ness (or a general loyalty and nationalistic feeling directed towards these migrants’ newly victorious “mother-country”) throughout the UK and colonies who assisted in both military victories6. The contributions that were made, which led to subsequent military successes enjoyed by the British army and navy, were partially fueled by the assistance of the New Commonwealth. India, Honduras, and the West Indian islands were the major contributors of troops and laborers on the home front throughout World War II with approximately 13,000 troops (India contributing the greatest with approximately 10,000 of those troops) being supplied to the British Military7, which led to the eventual victory Second World War. There were many other factors, which played roles in pulling immigrants to the UK in search for jobs and better lives for their families.
This sense of nationalism, as well as the opportunity to work to make a sum of money to help their family and friends back home, with the possibility of returning home afterwards, along with the potential to bring their families and friends overseas to start a new life, pulled many families to immigrate to their new home in the UK. In many circumstances chain migration would occur. This phenomenon occurred when immigrants from the New Commonwealth would first come to Great Britain, and would be followed by their families and friends a few weeks, months, or years later, once a message of positive conditions and a steady income was shuttled back home. Throughout the twentieth century this chain-like process was one of the most effective mechanisms, which drew many immigrants into the country8. Due to this immigration pattern many migrants were reassured of their potential for a better life, and the numbers of immigrants searching for work in the UK continued to rise.
The jobs that these thousands of newly recruited immigrants took on varied greatly. However, their economic motivation was clear as in 1946 the Cabinet Working Party estimated the shortage of labor as being between one million and one and a half million positions9. The general demand for labor, fair wages, net decrease in population from 1960-1980, and the under employment due to expanding industry within the UK pulled many migrants from their homelands in search for work in the UK. The occupations which immigrants took on throughout, and after, the war included work in ammunitions factories, food preparation, agricultural work, jobs in the medical field as nurses and doctors, and other industrial, mass production jobs that, for a large part, took place in factory settings which the general British population was not enthusiastic to fill due to poor working conditions10.
This general acceptance of these new immigrants was shown through the passing of legislation by the British government, which motivated so many people to immigrate to the UK. For the most part, the assistance of immigrants, if they were of “good human stocks” and were able to assimilate “with the host population and become part of it”, was very appreciated11. The British Nationality Act was passed in 1948. This act allowed any individual, who was currently living in a British colony, and could provide documentation and a passport, to enter the country. Furthermore, in 1965, 1968, and 1976 there were three different Race Relations Acts, which made discrimination in housing and employment illegal. The 1976 act summed up all of the other acts by establishing a Commission for Racial Equality, which assisted in enforcing this legislation12. This legislation persuaded many people who were currently living in the New Commonwealth colonies to enter the country and to act upon this newly founded sense of British-ness by immigrating to the UK in search of better work, higher quality housing, and a better life for themselves and for their children than was available in their current states.
The driving forces behind why so many people chose to come to Great Britain were not only due to these pulling factors. This mass migration was also due to push factors, which can be separated into sets of economic, social, religious, and political factors which drove many of these “to be immigrants” out of their native countries.
There were economic factors that pushed many immigrants in search for a better life in Great Britain. Many of these economic factors affected the smaller islands of the New Commonwealth. These economic circumstances, which faced these to-be-migrants, included the low gross domestic product per capita, inadequate wages, low rates of economic growth, and high unemployment, which reached a maximum of 27% in Jamaica13. These poor economic conditions drove many immigrants out of the country in search for higher wages in the UK. In many instances, these immigrants would work for an extended period of time in the UK, and eventually return to their home country. However, these migrants were also known to send a portion of this newly earned income back home to support their families and friends. This new- found income was also used to assist their families in joining them (which also led to chain migration)14.
There were also political factors, which were the result of independence movements in places such as India, which played a role in the migration of many immigrants to the UK. Since World War II many New Commonwealth countries have been granted their independence. One of the most punctual independence movements sprouted out of India, which was granted its independence in 194715. When this occurred there was much turmoil, inter-arguing, and disorganized chaos within the newly founded government, which in turn drove many to the prospect of a better, more peaceful life in the “mother-country” of Great Britain.
One example of this turmoil and disorganized chaos, which occurred as a result of this newly founded independence, was manifested in India. The day after they had been granted their independence, the Muslim league had argued for a separate state for Muslims, and Pakistan was created. Pakistan had a strong Hindu and Sikh minority and then newly-independent India had a large Muslim population. This resulted in many Hindus and Sikhs migrating to India, and many Muslims migrating to Pakistan. As the paths of these two religious groups passed by one another there were massive riots that resulted in a huge loss of life, and destruction on both sides16. Consequently, during this period of disruption within India and Pakistan, as well as the bordering Asian countries, there was a post-war labor shortage in the UK, which led many now homeless and jobless-Asians who were adversely affected as a result of this religious turmoil to migrate to Great Britain.
There were also social factors that played roles in the pushing of many to-be-migrants from their home countries in search for a better life in the UK. In Barbados the population rates rose to 1,200 individuals per square mile. This relative overpopulation in Barbados as well as some of the smaller West Indian islands drove many migrants away from their homelands in search of a better life for themselves and their families.
Although immigration was at the highest in the 1950s, and part of the 1960s, there was a dramatic decrease in the overall immigration into the UK throughout the rest of the second half of the twentieth century. Between the years of 1960 and 1990 there was a slew of laws passed, restricting entry into the country of Britain. The first act aimed to restrict immigration was the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1962, which limited the number of vouchers that were allocated to New Commonwealth migrants, and was followed by many more. Throughout the second half of the 20th century there were many instances of race riots, (mostly perpetuated by white racists) which took place in Nottingham, Liverpool, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Brixton18. The difficulty that some immigrants have faced when finding jobs and accommodation truly manifested the racist tensions in British Society, which turned many away from the prospect of starting a new life in the UK throughout the second half of the twentieth century.
Immigration dramatically slowed throughout the 1970s and 80s, not only due to this legislation and racial tension. This decrease was also due to increases in employment, deindustrialization, the decline of the manufacturing industry, and the privatization of many industries throughout the Thatcher years19, which increased unemployment but did not necessarily open new opportunities for migrants as the 20th century drew to a close.
The economic, social, and political push and pull factors, which brought hundreds of thousands of New Commonwealth immigrants to Great Britain in search for better life, were great. However, the ultimate search for a better life for themselves, but also for many generations to come even as challenges persisted, has dramatically changed the face, and will continue to change Great Britain for many years to come.
posted by Alan at 4:46 PM
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